Grand Duchy Of Tuscany. Francis had to cede his ancestral Duchy of Lorraine in order to accommodate the deposed ruler of Poland, whose daughter Marie Leszczyska became Queen of France and of Navarre in 1725. He continued his father's Austrian/Imperial alliance, cementing it by marrying Johanna of Austria. Tuscany was divided into the dpartements of Arno, Mditerrane and Ombrone. During the Holy League of 1571, Cosimo fought against the Ottoman Empire, siding with the Holy Roman Empire. The Duchy of Parma and Piacenza joined with the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Duchy of Modena to form the United Provinces of Central Italy in December 1859, and merged with the Kingdom of Sardinia into the Kingdom of Italy in March 1860 after holding a referendum. Florence became a fiefdom of Spain on 1557, but it conserved its independence. Over the ages, even if Fiorentine trade fell, culture continued on a high peak. of State, World War I and the She and her court left on 10 December. The negotiations had been between Spain and France, and the Etrurian regent was kept entirely in the dark, only being informed that she would have to leave her young son's kingdom on 23 November 1807. [50], Leopold also introduced radical reforms to the system of neglect and inhumane treatment of the mentally ill. On 23January 1774, the legge sui pazzi (law regarding the insane) was established, the first of its kind to be introduced in Europe, allowing steps to be taken to hospitalize individuals deemed insane. The administration of the state was delegated to bureaucrats. [8], The international reaction to Cosimo's elevation was bleak. By the Treaty of Fontainebleau (27 October 1807), Etruria was to be annexed by France. From 1553 to 1559, Tuscany raised 30,000 troops for their participation in the Last Italian War, which saw the Republic of Siena being added to the duchy. The United Provinces of Central Italy, a client state of the Kingdom of Sardinia, annexed Tuscany in 1859. His second son Ferdinand became ruler of the Grand Duchy. Italian nationalism exploded in the post-Napoleonic years, leading to the establishment of secret societies bent on a unified Italy. Although the artistic development on Tuscany became less and less, Tuscany started becoming more and more powerful. By January 1785, the process of negotiating such an The Senate, composed of forty-eight men, chosen by the constitutional reform commission, was vested with the prerogative of determining Florence's financial, security, and foreign policies. The Duke of Lucca decided to abdicate his throne in favor of the Grand Duke of Tuscany Leopoldo II, while the Lucca territories of Montignoso, Gallicano, Minucciano and Castiglione di Garfagnana were given to Modena. Following Ferdinand's death, his elder son, Leopold II, succeeded him. Ferdinand IV's hypothetical reign didn't last long; the House of Habsburg-Lorraine was formally deposed by the National Assembly on 16 August 1859.[54]. Gian Gastone had no say in events and had become quite attached to the Spanish Infante. Tuscany was one of the states of the Holy Roman Empire that sided with the Emperor in the Thirty Years War, sending thousands of troops to support the pro-Imperial side from 1631. Under him, Tuscany was ruled by a viceroy, Marc de Beauvau-Craon, Prince de Craon. [7] The plan was about to be approved by the powers convened at Geertruidenberg when Cosimo abruptly added that if himself and his two sons predeceased his daughter, the Electress Palatine, she should succeed and the republic be re-instituted following her death. residence at Boston) was signed by President James They reverted to the crown with the ascension of Gian Gastone.[61]. Gian Gastone had no say in events and had become quite attached to the Spanish Infante. The Grand Duchy recognized the United States in 1794 when it received the first U.S. consular agent to serve within the grand duchy, Philip Felicchi who was stationed at Livorno from May 24, 1794, to December 7, 1796. CosimoI died in 1574 of apoplexy, leaving a stable and extremely prosperous Tuscany behind him, having been the longest ruling Medici yet. It was conquered by the Romans 280 BC. Coordinates: .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}43N 11E / 43N 11E / 43; 11. CosimoI died in 1574 of apoplexy, leaving a stable and extremely prosperous Tuscany behind him, having been the longest ruling Medici yet. In 1823, President James Monroe named Ombrosi as consul, but it was not until Tuscany became part of the Kingdom of Italy in 1860 that the host government formally recognized the U.S. Consul General in Florence. Despite giving recognition to the U.S., the Duchy refused to recognize American consular agents posted in Florence. It lists some 238 vessels captured from 1563 to 1688; enemy galleys captured from 1568 to 1599 were 11 (for the loss of an identical number), and another 17 were seized between 1602 and 1635. Piedemont annexed Genoa, but Lombardy, Tuscany and Apulia were exceemed. Date/Time There were, however, several attempts to The Grand Duchy of Tuscany was an Italian monarchy that existed, with interruptions, from 1569 to 1859, replacing the Republic of Florence. Christina dominated her grandson long after he came of age until her death in 1636. In 1790, Emperor Joseph II died without issue and Leopold was called to Vienna, to assume the rule of his family's Austrian dominions and become Emperor. The Austrian garrison was withdrawn in 1855. His descendants ruled, and resided in, the grand duchy until its end in 1859, barring one interruption, when Napoleon Bonaparte gave Tuscany to the House of Bourbon-Parma (Kingdom of Etruria, 18017). [56] On 12 August 1530, the Emperor created the Medici hereditary rulers (capo) of the Republic of Florence. Tuscany's economic and military strength cratered from the second half of the 17th century onward, which was reflected in the quality of its army; by 1740 it only consisted of a few thousand poorly-trained men and was considered impotent to such a degree that its Habsburgs rulers allowed enemy troops to cross the duchy unopposed. Tuscany passed to another son, Leopold,[48] through secundogeniture. Benito Mussolini was made Chief of the Congress, and he conceded much more power to the Dux of Tuscany. Queen Catherine of France, though herself a Medici, viewed Cosimo with the utmost disdain. [19] To augment the Tuscan silk industry, he oversaw the planting of Mulberry trees along the major roads (silk worms feed on Mulberry leaves). Ferdinando II died in 1670, succeeded by his oldest surviving son Cosimo. Cosimo III was succeeded by his son, Gian Gastone, who, for most of his life, kept to his bed and acted in an unregal manner, rarely appearing to his subjects, to the extent that, at times, he had been thought dead. Italy on 1942. The said revolution toppled the throne of France, and caused disarray across Europe. The economy was so decrepit that barter trade became prevalent in rural market places. Coat of arms of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine (Tuscany). On it, the Tuscan army was mayor on defeating the Genovese, and got a large swath of territory, the Masacara lands . Tuscany, Italy: landscape Tuscany is a transitional region occupying much of the former grand duchy of that name near the base of the Italian peninsula. [71], The Tuscans were early pioneers in the deployment of roundships, as technology made manpower-heavy galleys less efficient. into the Kingdom of Italy in 1860. By 1506, it numbered 20,000 men, of whom 70% carried pikes, 20% halberds/bills and hog-spears, and 10% either arquebuses or crossbows. On 30 May 1808, Etruria was formally annexed to France. He revamped the taxation and tariff system. When Cosimo died, his oldest son, Ferdinando, was still a minor. The grand duchy's capital was Florenceball . During his reign, Florence purchased the island of Elba from the Republic of Genoa (in 1548), conquered Siena (in 1555) and developed a well-equipped and powerful naval base on Elba. By 1705, the grand ducal treasury was virtually bankrupt, and the population of Florence had declined by approximately 50%, while the population of the entire grand duchy had decreased by an estimated 40%. This was used both for the protection of towns and fortresses that the army was not able to garrison, and as a reserve from which semi-trained men would be drawn into the army. Grand Duchy of Tuscany. In Tuscany, Leopold II sanctioned a liberal constitution; and instituted a liberal ministry. Please add suggestions on the talk page. The duchy's largest military deployment came during this war, when in June 1643 over 10,000 troops (7,000 Tuscans in eight regiments of infantry recruited from militia, garrison troops, and veteran mercenaries; 1 regiment of German infantry; 2,400 cavalry, a quarter of whom were Germans; and 1 regiment of Tuscan dragoons) with 18 cannons invaded the Papal States holding of Umbria, while other troops and militia were left garrisoning the grand duchy's major citadels, coastal forts, and border forts. At the end of it, a great revolt of cotton workers, called the Ciompi Revolt, happened. State. relations. Cosimo III's reign was characterised by drastic changes and a sharp decline of the Grand Duchy. The government was finally dissolved upon its annexation to the United Provinces of Central Italy in 1859. It lists some 238 vessels captured from 1563 to 1688; enemy galleys captured from 1568 to 1599 were 11 (for the loss of an identical number), and another 17 were seized between 1602 and 1635. It was conquered by the Romans 280 BC. The same year, a Tuscan state council was brought into being. [7] Italy was unified in 1870, when the remains of the Papal States were annexed in that September, deposing Pope Pius IX. Related: Grand Duchy of Tuscany - Kingdom of Sardinia - Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia - Duchy of Lucca The Treaty of the Hague reconfirmed the statuses of Tuscany and Parma-Piacenza as imperial fiefs.[42]. They launched several big ships at Portoferraio after 1601, with an armament of 40 guns each yet only 60 seamen each. Medici Grand Duchy of Tuscany. A few years later Leopold undertook the project of building a new hospital, the Bonifacio. The U.S. established a consular The grand duke also enticed English corsairs in North Africa to use Livorno as a base instead in exchange for amnesty and a share of their profits; Livorno quickly became a corsair capital, with the corsairs preying on both Muslim and Christian shipping. Once it became They were divided because the stato nuovo was a Spanish fief and the stato vecchio an Imperial one. The grand duke also enticed English corsairs in North Africa to use Livorno as a base instead in exchange for amnesty and a share of their profits; Livorno quickly became a corsair capital, with the corsairs preying on both Muslim and Christian shipping. [35] He imposed crippling taxes[36] while the country's population continued to decline. In 1731, the Powers gathered at Vienna to decide who would succeed Gian Gastone. The government was finally dissolved upon its annexation to the United Provinces of Central Italy in 1859. Gian Gastone was not as steadfast in negotiating Tuscany's future as his father was. IV. On 1115, the Republic of Florence was founded by Florentine rebels which wanted independence from the Margraviate of Tuscany, which disintegrated after this was achieved. On 22 March 1860, after a referendum that voted overwhelmingly (95%) in favour of a union with Sardinia; Tuscany was formally annexed to Sardinia. Henry explicitly stated that he would defend Tuscany from Spanish aggression, but later reneged. But on one moment, Clement VII (Another Medici) made a treaty with Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. [27] In 1657, Leopoldo de' Medici, the Grand Duke's youngest brother, established the Accademia del Cimento, which set up to attract scientists from all over Tuscany to Florence for mutual study. All our content comes from Wikipedia and under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Index, Leghorn He died at Innsbruck from a stroke in 1765; his wife pledged the rest of her life to mourning him, while co-ruling with her son, and Francis' imperial successor Joseph II. In February 1849, Leopold II had to abandon Tuscany to Republicans and sought refuge in the Neapolitan city of Gaeta. Its sovereignty was restored in 1814, when Marie Louise (Napoleon's wife) ruled it as a Duchess until her death. Francis did not live in his Tuscan realm, and lived in the capital of his wife's realm, Vienna. [7] The court moved to Salzburg and lived there in exile until 1918. The Etruscans were a heavily civilized people, very influenced by their neighbors on Campania and the Balkans, the Greeks. He was then tortured and executed by Fiorentine functionaries, and killed on May 1498. Coat of Arms (1562-1737) House of Habsburg-Lorraine. Tuscany was formally annexed to Sardinia in 1860, as a part of the unification of Italy, following a landslide referendum, in which 95% of voters approved. [57] Pope Clement VII willed his relative Alessandro de' Medici to be the monarchical ruler of Florence, and went about requisitioning that dignity carefully; he wanted to give the impression that the Florentines democratically chose Alessandro to be their monarch. The document in question was officiated on the 27th of that month. During the Holy League of 1571, Cosimo fought against the Ottoman Empire, siding with the Holy Roman Empire. [11] Rumours circulated at the Viennese court that had Cosimo as a candidate for King of England. The Grand Duchy was then dissolved, and replaced by the Kingdom of Etruria under the house of Bourbon-Parma, in compensation for their loss of Duchy of Parma. In response to the Trkenkriege during the Long Turkish War starting in 1593, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany sent 100,000 scudi and 3,600 soldiers (3,000 infantry and 600 cavalry) to support the Holy Roman Emperor in Hungary, plus smaller detachments thereafter (there were 2,000 Tuscans in the Imperial army in Hungary by 1601). Tuscany was overcome with religious orders, all of whom were not obliged to pay taxes. by President Franklin Pierce on November 1, 1854. The Government of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany refused to recognize Page 102. They reverted to the crown with the ascension of Gian Gastone. Although the U.S. Continental Congress appointed a Commissioner to the Court of the Grand Duke of Tuscany on July 1, 1777, the U.S. representative, Ralph Izard, was never officially received in Florence. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany ( Italian: Granducato di Toscana; Latin: Magnus Ducatus Etruriae) was an Italian monarchy that existed, with interruptions, from 1569 to 1859, replacing the Republic of Florence. Walter J. Renfroe, Jr. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. [48], Leopold developed and supported many social and economic reforms. Commissioner to the Court of the Grand Duke of Tuscany on July 1, 1777. He was excommunicated by Alexander VI and he declared war upon Pisa, which misserably failed and led to widespread plague and famine. In 1847, Leopold, following the death of the then-incumbent Duchess of Parma, Marie Louise of Austria, and the secret Treaty of Florence (1844), annexed the Duchy of Lucca, a state created solely to accommodate the House of Bourbon-Parma until they could re-assume their Parmese sovereignty. Francis Stephen altered the laws of succession in 1763, when he declared his second son, Leopold, heir to the grand duchy. In the 10-hour battle, punctuated by cannon fire and boarding actions, 600 pirates were killed or captured and they lost 4 of the 5 ships (3 sunk, 1 captured), while the Italians lost 60 dead. Cosimo III was of a puritan character, banning May celebrations, forcing prostitutes to pay for licenses and, beheading sodomites. The representatives of the Grand This page was last updated at 2023-01-01 05:41 UTC. However, the constitution was so radically new that it garnered opposition even from those who might have benefited from it. of the Department, A Guide to the United States History of Recognition, Tuscan troops served the Emperor in Silesia during the Seven Years' War. By January 1785, the process of negotiating such an agreement never came to be for unknown reasons.[1]. The Peace of Villafranca allowed Leopold to return once more. The Etruscans were the most powerful nation on Italy until the rise of Rome. the new Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed on March 17, 1861, with the royal Ferdinand III resumed his rule, and died in 1824. The grand duke Leopold II agreed to ratify a liberal constitution in 1848. Leopold was contemporarily acknowledged as a liberal monarch. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany also knows as Tuscany or Etruria, is a country in central italy it shares border with the State of The Church, Most serene Republic of Lucca and the Duchy of Modena and Reggio . In December 1859, the Grand Duchy was joined to the Duchies of Modena and Parma to form the United Provinces of Central Italy, which were annexed by the Kingdom of Sardinia a few months later. Yves-Marie Berce figures that most of those troops were of French or Swiss origin, but Hanlon disputes this, saying that Italians comprised a larger portion, and that the specific origins of the troops have very little information to go on. [2] The grand duchy's capital was Florence. Chiarugi and his collaborators introduced new humanitarian regulations in the running of the hospital and caring for the mentally ill patients, including banning the use of chains and physical punishment, and in so doing have been recognized as early pioneers of what later came to be known as the moral treatment movement. In spite of an official protest by the Holy Roman Emperor, Florence was henceforth . The Napoleonic system collapsed in 1814, and the following territorial settlement, the Congress of Vienna, ceded the State of Presidi to a restored Tuscany. Cosimo experienced several personal tragedies during the later years of his reign. Upon arrival, he abdicated in favour of his elder son, Ferdinand. the President, Visits by Foreign Heads [58] To be eligible, one had to be male and a noble. NATO on blue, Warsaw Pact on red, gray is disputed. It formally created a hereditary monarchy, abolished the age-old signoria (elective government) and the office of gonfaloniere (titular ruler of Florence elected for a two-month term); in their place was the consigliere, a four-man council elected for a three-month term, headed by the "Duke of the Florentine Republic" (and later the Grand Duke of Tuscany). [3] He used his skill at choosing collaborators to put a young physician, Vincenzo Chiarugi, at its head. In 1687 the Tuscans sent an additional 4 galleys, plus 2 hired foreign galleys, carrying 860 more soldiers, including German mercenaries. [29], Tuscany participated in the Wars of Castro (the last time Medicean Tuscany proper was involved in a conflict) and inflicted a defeat on the forces of Urban VIII in 1643. [49], Francis' second surviving son Peter Leopold became grand duke of Tuscany and ruled the country until his brother Joseph's death. Information, United States Department of Cosimo then purchased Elba from Genoa, and built Livorno. It generated about 20 watts of energy, but it was a beginning. for fear of upsetting the British, Izard never proceeded to Tuscany. No views 55 seconds ago Welcome To Grand Duchy Of Tuscany. The Tuscans were early pioneers in the deployment of roundships, as technology made manpower-heavy galleys less efficient. During their reigns the Renaissance started on a serious way. In 1613, Cosimo II sent 2,000 infantry and 300 cavalry, along with an undisclosed number of Tuscan adventurers, to aid the Spanish after Savoy launched an invasion of the Monferrato. Soderini was deposed on 1512, when Cardinal Giovanni de Medici entered Florence with Papal troops. However, it had remained within NATO with the hope of getting territories from the until-then richest nation of Italy, Lombardy. These deaths were to affect him greatly, which, along with illness, forced Cosimo to unofficially abdicate in 1564. "The Dawn of Modern Warfare. Ferdinando, despite no longer being a cardinal, exercised much influence at successive Papal conclaves; elections which chose the Pope, the head of the Catholic Church. Francis had to cede his ancestral Duchy of Lorraine in order to accommodate the deposed ruler of Poland, whose daughter Marie Leszczyska became Queen of France and of Navarre in 1725. On 1941, Venezia attacked Lombardy. It established a revolutionary commune. On 1939, the Axis (Piedemont, Venezia, United Papal States, Naples, Emirate of Sicily, Germany) declared war on Poland. This expedition was less successful, costing 800 men and 4 ships disabled. Tuscany was overcome with religious orders, all of whom were not obliged to pay taxes. Having brought nearly all Tuscany under his control after conquering the . Relations ended in 1860 following the Unification of Italy when the Duchy was dissolved and incorporated into a singular Italian state. Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor and his cousin King Philip II of Spain reacted quite angrily, as Florence was in theory an Imperial fief and declared Pius V's actions invalid. By 1705, the grand ducal treasury was virtually bankrupt, and the population of Florence had declined by approximately 50%, while the population of the entire grand duchy had decreased by an estimated 40%. In a war against Austria, the Tuscan army demanded an alliance with the Sardinians in April 1859. An anonymous Venetian intelligence report from the late 16th century stated that Tuscany could spend 800,000 ducats annually on war (half as much as the Spanish-held Kingdom of Naples despite having a quarter of its population), and could raise 40,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry, counting soldiers, militia, and mercenaries from nearby Corsica and Romagna, a force massively out of proportion to its population. [1] Ombrosi's appointment was refused by Grand Duke Ferdinand. last representative of Tuscany in the United States was G.B. Cosimo also . By 1900, it was the most able. Department, Buildings of the Marie's father Stanisaw I of Poland ruled Lorraine as compensation for his loss of the Kingdom of Poland. . A provisional republic was established in his stead. In 1803, the first King of Etruria, Louis I, died and was succeeded by his infant son, Charles Louis, under the regency of his mother, Queen Mara Luisa. In 1608, they intercepted a Turkish convoy of 42 vessels off Rhodes, seizing 9 and netting 600 slaves and a booty of 1 million ducats, equivalent to two years of revenue for the whole grand duchy. Leopold felt obliged to espouse Austria's cause. Originally, there was a Roman settlement on the areas of Florence, called Florentia, but it was destroyed in the civil war between Marius and Sila. This led to a regency of Ferdinand's grandmother, Dowager Grand Duchess Christina, and his mother, Maria Maddalena of Austria. All unauthorized edits may be reverted on the admin's discretion. Hanlon considers the report overly optimistic, but with some basis in fact. [57] In April 1532, the Pope convinced the Bala, Florence's ruling commission, to draw up a new constitution. The earliest of such attempts was in 1784 when U.S. It should be noted that Piedmont-Sardinia was one of He died at Innsbruck from a stroke in 1765; his wife pledged the rest of her life to mourning him, while co-ruling with her son, and Francis' imperial successor Joseph II. View original page. Tuscany was neutral during the War of the Spanish Succession, partly due to Tuscany's ramshackle military; a 1718 military review revealed that the army numbered less than 3,000 men, many of whom were infirm and elderly. Please do not edit or alter this article in any way while this template is active. (Livorno) as early as 1794, thus obtaining official recognition A lot of technology and development was brought there. Volume I: He capitulated to foreign demands, and instead of endorsing the claim to the throne of his closest male relative, the prince of Ottajano, he allowed Tuscany to be bestowed upon Francis Stephen of Lorraine. Leopold II lent his support to the Kingdom of Sardinia in the Austro-Sardinian War. The once powerful navy was reduced to a pitiful state. [1], The Grand Duchy recognized the United States in 1794 when it received the first U.S. consular agent to serve within the grand duchy, Philip Felicchi who was stationed at Livorno from May 24, 1794, to December 7, 1796. [21] Francesco and Ferdinando, due to lax distinction between Medici and Tuscan state property, are thought to be wealthier than their ancestor, Cosimo de' Medici, the founder of the dynasty. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany (or Granducato di Toscana in Italian) was a central Italian monarchy that existed, with interruptions, from 1569 to 1859, replacing the Duchy of Florence. Status of the, Quarterly On 22 March 1860, after a referendum that voted overwhelmingly (95%[7]) in favour of a union with Sardinia; Tuscany was formally annexed to Sardinia. Fiorentia was designated capital of Tuscia, a great sub-region, dominating today's Tuscany, Umbria and northern Lazio. [73], In 1686, Tuscany sent 4 galleys, 4 galiots, and 2 other vessels carrying 870 soldiers to participate in the Morean War (a battalion of 400 Tuscans were already serving there). His affinity for Austria was equally unpalatable. In the 19th century the population of the Grand Duchy was about 1,815,000 inhabitants. During the reign of the Medici, which transformed the Republic of Florence into the Duchy of Florence and then the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Renainssance started. Soon after, Francis Stephen of Lorraine became heir to the Tuscan throne. (Livorno). Following the collapse of the Napoleonic system in 1814, the grand duchy was restored. [39] He sent munitions to the Emperor during the Battle of Vienna. In 1631, the grand duke sent 7,000 troops (6,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry) to join Wallenstein's army in support of the Emperor during the Thirty Years War. Since their accession to the throne of Grand Dukes, the Habsburgs continually tried to make Tuscany a source of military power, to little success, as Tuscany had declined and demilitarized in the 18th century. [18] He shifted Tuscany away from Habsburg[20] hegemony by marrying the first non-Habsburg candidate since Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence, Christina of Lorraine, a granddaughter of Catherine de' Medici. During his reign, Florence purchased the island of Elba from the Republic of Genoa (in 1548), conquered Siena (in 1555) and developed a well-equipped and powerful naval base on Elba. Grand Duchy Of Tuscany. He was unpopular among his subjects, though his many reforms brought the Grand Duchy to a level of stability that had not been seen in quite a while. Ferdinando's pro-Papal foreign policy, however, had drawbacks. Puritanism swept through the Republic, and someone appointed Jesus of Nazareth (Christ) as the King of Florence. Like his uncle, Francesco I, government held no appeal for him, and Tuscany was ruled by his ministers. Tuscany then ceded its Lunigiana territories to Modena with the exception of Pontremoli which passed to the Duchy of Parma. Izard was charged on February 4, 1778, with trying to secure a loan from the . By going to the ballot box, the The treasury was so empty that when the Castro mercenaries were paid for the state could no longer afford to pay interest on government bonds. He was forced out by the French during the French Revolutionary Wars, first in spring 1799 when a jacobin provisional government was created by the French army, and then after the Treaty of Aranjuez (1801), becoming instead Elector of Salzburg, ruling the territory of the former archbishopric. Yves-Marie Berce figures that most of those troops were of French or Swiss origin, but Hanlon disputes this, saying that Italians comprised a larger portion, and that the specific origins of the troops have very little information to go on. Tuscany during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland; House of Commons, John Bowring, 1839, p 6, Austria and Spain were ruled by the House of Habsburg; the two are interchangeable terms for the time period in question, Joachim Whaley, "Germany and the Holy Roman Empire: Volume II: The Peace of Westphalia to the Dissolution of the Reich, 1648-1806", from the Oxford History of Early Modern Europe, p. 137. When Cosimo died, his oldest son, Ferdinando, was still a minor. United States Department of State. In Leopold's years Italy was engulfed in popular rebellion, culminating in the Revolutions of 1848. 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